This is a book memo written for the course of Co-evolution of States and Markets taught by Professor John Padgett, from the Department of Political Science, University of Chicago. Prof. Padgett requires that we shall relate the subject of the book memo/review to the concents of the course.
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......All restraints against them [Chinese peasants] shall be torn down by them on the fast track towards liberation. All imperialists, warloards, corrupted officials, local tyrants and evil gentry shall be buried by them into due graves. All revolutionary parties and comrads shall undergo their scrutiny and selection. Shall we stand in front of them as leaders? Shall we stand at their back commenting and criticizing them profusely? Or shall we stand at the opposite side, oppressing them? You, all Chinese, are free to choose among these three alternatives; but current trends of events will force from you a quick decision.......
——Mao Zedong (1)
Barrington Moore, who might never have read Mao’s famous quote, also in his book Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy recognized the potential power of peasant movements in the process of modernization: “peasant in the modern era has been as much an agent of revolution as the machine......he has come into his own as an effective historical actor along with the conquests of the machine ” (p. 453) (2) . However, Moore asserted that peasant movements must be understood in relation to actions of the upper classes and the societies, as their contributions were very uneven across various countries, and that, ironically, only in countries where peasants were transformed out of their class, a.k.a where peasants were no longer who they had been, could systems of liberal democracy have secure rootings. Thus the subtitle of the book can somehow be misleading, as peasants only played significant roles in limited cases.
The central puzzle of Moore’s book is “what kinds of social structures and historical situations produce peasant revolutions and what other kinds inhibit or prevent them” (p. 453). He adopted what is now called “comparative sociological history” apporaches and discerned three general patterns toward modernization. According to Moore, while each nation (at least up to 1960s) of course possess unique characteristics in modernization processes, they do not deviate too much from this general framework of categorization (p. 414). Moore emphasized that these three patterns were not alternatives, but successive stages of modernization, as late comers in the modernization process faced different problems than early risers (p. 414).
The first pattern, bourgeoisie revolution, the most “ideal” type, can be summarized by Moore’s succint sentence “no bourgeoisie, no democracy” (p. 418). England bourgeoisie enjoyed the “advantage of early birds”; not only were they free from competitions of foreign counterparts but they also possessed conception of just resistance to unjust rulers, tradition of noble council since Magna Carta, as well as the spirit of contract as a mutual engagement freely undertaken by free persons. The early exposure of aristocrats to commercial agriculture, the absence of a strong repressive apparatus, coupled with their traditional immunity from the King, made them politically less dependent on absolutist rules and economically more united with urban bourgeoisie. Landlords and upper class of peasentry gradually picked-up business-men mentality (yeomen) and triggered the enclosure movement by “nibbling away” traditional serfdom; thus English rural society was torn top-down peacefully. While England still have to undergo a violent Civil War to eliminate stubborn older upper class, to behead the King as the final line of defense for peasants, and thus to completely break with the past, massive peasant movements did not occur in England. Instead they played primarily the role of “agent” in the enclosure movement, violently yet passively transformed into landless industrial workers, solving the “peasant question” that would become critical nubs in other cases. By the end of 18th and early 19th century when clash between landed and commercial interest began to emerge, the issues were peacefully resolved by both classes turning to rural and urban workers for parliamentary support.
Such a combination only arose in Western Europe, or England more particularly; other places either lacked crucial element or crucial balance (p. 418). In France, while peasant possess close to de facto property rights, parasitic landlords lived on rents and relied heavily on royal bureaucracy, the main instrument of absolutism against localist. French aristocrats kept the peasnt on the land and used feudal levers to extract more produce of both wheat and wine. Commerce regarded as degredation, and commercial agriculturalists must use West Indies as their basis. Landded upper classes adapted to capitalism by further exploiting peasants abut also leaving them de facto onwership. In France, Crown was the momentum behind modernization. Fusion between nobility and bourgeoisie occured through, not against, the crown, and it is the upper bourgeoisie who were “feudalized”. Peasant movements therefore played dual roles in the revolution. Under exploitation, they initially joined hands with petty-bourgeoisie and urban poors in repelling the absolutist. Upper layer peasants also took the chance to dismount seigneurial system---main achievement of revolution. But the revolutionaries’ subsequent exploitation of small peasants to feed urban poor and the army turned the radicalism against themselves. Therefore “Sans culottes” made the revolution, but the peasants, caring more about equal distribution of land than democracy, determined how far it could go (p. 110).
And in USA, where a pre-revolution slavery and cotton manor system instead of rural peasantry inhibited capitalist development, Civil War served the function of a social revolution to destroy the and transformed slaves into landed peasants, while also re-organized relationships between Southern land owners and Northen industrial capitalists to pave way for the subsequent industrialization of America. But all in all peasants, in these three cases, were generally incorporated into the liberal democracy system. In Moore’s words, “the wellsrpings of human freedom lie not only where Marx saw them, in the aspirations of classes about to take power, but perhaps even more in the dying wail of a class over whome the wave of progress is about to roll. ” (p. 505)
The second pattern, fascism, occured Germany and Japan, was a kind of “popular conservative” in the sense that it mobilized the mass for bottom-up support, and a kind of “modernization from above” in the sense that state, instead of the union of bourgeoisie and new landed class, triggered industrialization in a top-down manner. In both nations landed class used political, religious and traditional means to preserve rural society, and particularly the labor-repressive system, which relied not on market but on political means to extract labor output. Under this system, while peasants did not necessarily suffer, there was a huge asymmetry between justice and security provided by landlord compared with labor output by worker, and by depriving the economic and political basis of peasants, such a system was unfavorable to democracy. Moreover, in the late 19th century, labor-repressive system, facing more efficient labor-market system, only enhanced authoritarian and reactionary trends among a landed upper class attempting to using political levers to rescue itself from being toppled. (pp. 436-437).
In both nations traditional aristocrats attempted to modernize without changing social struture. Such an approach made several statecraft natural: militarism, uniting the upper classes; intensifying international conflict, making industrailization more important; able leadership to drag along less perceptive reactionary elements and build bureacracy, suppress peasant movement, but also secure the nations from ultra-reactionary movement; and rationalization of political order by breaking traditional and territorial divsions, building a strong central governments that can develop domestic economy and project military power outward, manufacturing new citizens with rudimentary literacy and working skills, and shifting loyalty to sates. All these elements strengthened the power of the upper class and repressed democratic incentives. Therefore, in the absence of peasant revolution and the ultimate break with traditional societies, liberal democracies could not take roots in these societies, without the assistance of external forces (after a bloody World War II).
The third and the most modern model, Communism established through peasant movements, occured in Russia and China, and especially in China. This is the pattern in which the most violent episodes of peasant movements occured. Moore believed that without commercial transition of agriculture, both nations lacked a strong, economically independent urban bourgeoisie class as the driving force of industrial modernization. Both nations also witnessed the survival of peasant social intitutions into modern era, whose tie with dominant classes in the countryside, however, were weakened by the political upheavals (Russia) or invasion of a foreign force (China). But the exploitative character of this relationship was retained by subsequent semi-modernized regimes. Both countries, in the pre-modern era, also retained great agrarian bureaucracies which, in Moore’s view, were more liable to revolutions. Such bureaucracies tamed independent bourgeoisie; always demanded excessive taxes; and took over security and protection in the competition against local elites but ironically had not enough resources to provide them. Such bureaucracies not only weakened the drove rural peasants and upper class alliance, who revolted in part to protect de facto property rights, and in part against the “intrusion” into their traditional lifestyles.
Communism happened to be one of the most efficient means to mobilize these antagonistic factors into organized forms of violence against the old regime. A mass of discontent peasants provided the best fuse to trigger revolutions. In China as well as Russia, the Communist Party skillfully merged the grievance of peasant with that of other strata. By themselve peasants have never been albe to accomplish a revolution. Peasants need leaders of other classes. Peasant revolts are frequently crushed. Specifically, Russian Bolsheviks in the absence of a strong used its lack of ties with existing order to mobilize peasants, but later turned against them in the need of collectivization for capital. Chinese Communists, on the other hand, relied on peasants as the major source for army soldiers while also mobilizing proletariat workers and intellectuals in the urban area as allies. They, however, eventually turned to their Soviet allies for assistance and finally took the Soviet model of collectivization.
Moore concluded the book with the notion that in modernization the circumstances of peasant life have seldom made peasants the allies of democratic capitalism. But the condition has passed its zenith, and he looked forward to a break to this general rule in future revolutions, possibly in Latin America and Africa.
Suffice to say, Moore’s methodologies and philosophical are heavily inclined to structuralist, Marxist style of class stratification and materialistic analysis of social changes. However, Moore refuted both the liberal, gradualist evasion of bourgeoisie violence and conventional Marxist exaggeration of necessity of revolution. He is bold enough to regarded revolution as a necessary evil that, if properly directed, can help eliminate Yet he also critizied Stalinist Communism’s abuse of violence. He also re-addressed the significance of peasantry and traditional class, which was often neglected by Orthodox Marxism theories that stressed the imporatance of bourgeoisie and proletariat workers as linear forces of social revolutions. By using horizontally comparative approaches Moore also was able to discern similarities as well as differences among nations across time, allowing him to derive more generalizable conclusions than most traditional Marxists, who attempted to use one theory to fit all cases.
But Moore’s theory, overall, is deterministic as well as post hoc; deeply rooted in the Marxist perspectives, he seeks to “explain” events that have already occured. Thus predictive power is lacking. Moreover, while claiming to treat the three patterns equally, Moore was inherently Western-centric; he has pre-setted the Western European (and American) model as a bench mark, or a standard of comparison, in measuring other modernization models and discerning variables (for example, the absence of a strong and independent bourgeoisie) that he deemed disruptive to the establishment of Western liberal democracy. Such methods were diametrically opposed to Huntington’s theories, in which a more “technical” instead of “ideological” definition of modernization was employed as the starting point . Moore’s deterministic inclination naturally led him to about both Communism and liberalist institutions, as well as pessimism about the future in the Epilogue (pp. 505-508).
There were also shortcomings in Moore’s empirical studies. Studies of revolutions of revolutios and comparative social histories of Latin America and Africa did not emerge until late 1960s to provide additional support to the theory. Thus the applicability of Moore’s categorization must be revised by taking into account these cases. His analysis of China’s social situations and revolutions, as well as the social structure of Japan, as admitted by himself, suffered from a serious lack of insightful research and data, and thus cannot account for later changes the two nations. Discussion of details are too much for this article. For this moment it is enough to say that Moore has greatly over-estimated the power of Chinese state in renovating rural areas top-down and under-estimated the resilience of traditional rural culture and society in China’s economy and political sphere. The Communist ideological-laden efforts to replace traditional clan and cultural ties with Leninist collective Communes since the 1950s created catastrohpic famines and strong resistance from peasants; subsequent pragmatic leaders in the 1980s had to retreat and allowed a combination of traditional family-ownership cropping and market-oriented township-village enterpriese system, which later successfully merged with capitalist economic reform in the urban areas.
A final point can be made relating Moore’s book to this course. To paraphrase Mao Zedong, revolutionaries might think they are free to choose among the modernization alternatives, but history presses from them the inevitable decisions. This notion, embedded with a “logic of history” that is way too profound to be dealt with in this article, nevertheless worths further contemplations. Does not such an understanding of history overlook a wide array of possibilities of institutional changes? Why, how, and when do institutional innovations and inventions occur in various moments across differnt societies, on the superficially “determined” course of development? To answer those questions one of the best tools, this author believes, might be John Padgett’s theories in the course of Co-evolution of States and Markets.
(1) Mao Zedong, A Report on Survey of Hunan’s Peasant Movements (毛泽东:《湖南农民运动考察报告》), 1927, p.1. Chinese text:
http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/69112/70190/70197/70350/4950575.html. Translation by the author.
(2) Barrington Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1966. The subsequent quotations all come from this edition of the book.
(3) See Samuel P. Huntington, Political Orders in Changing Societies. New Haven, NJ: Yale University Press, 1968.
Dennis Smith曾盛赞巴林顿·摩尔《民主和专制的社会起源》(以下简称《起源》)是堪与马克斯·韦伯《新教伦理与资本主义精神》与埃米尔·涂尔干《自杀论》相媲美的杰作。三者鼎足而立,并称二十世纪社会学三大经典名著。鉴于这一称誉出现在摩尔的讣告之中,也许有溢美之嫌,未必为学界所公认,然此书自1966年出版后陆续被翻译为德语、法语、西班牙语、意大利语、瑞典语、汉语等多种语言,风行数十年,其学术生命力和影响力毋庸置疑。笔者所阅读的汉译本,由华夏出版社于1987年出版,译笔尚佳,惟删节较多,且未注明所删何处,最为遗憾的是,该书译者将原著所有注释一律删除,殊不合学术规范,给有意顺藤摸瓜、深入挖掘的读者造成了不便。