《功利主义》既然陷入争议,那么审视其姊妹篇《论自由(On liberty,1859)》时也该格外小心。《论自由》至少有三个值得关注之处:第1、一开篇密尔就撇弃了“意志自由”问题而仅限于关注“公民自由或社会自由,也就是社会所能合法施加于个人的权力的性质和限度”【《论自由》,1】问题。这一撇弃委实具有重大意义,意味着撇弃形而上学而仅仅依赖经验或常识理性来理解人及其政治,——甚至意味着丢弃形而上学沉思的传统。丢弃了自由意志,丢弃了笛卡尔开创的形而上学反思的自我,哪怕密尔不停地呼吁要捍卫个体性(individuality),我们也总会茫然若失:丢失了形而上学和诗意之维的个体太容易湮灭在茫茫人海中。密尔继承了典型的英国经验理性的思想和写作风格,充满现实的智睿和洞见,但形而上学和体系自洽性则显然有所欠缺,让人不禁回忆起黑格尔在《哲学史讲演录:第四卷》中所言:“英国人在欧洲似乎是一个局限于现实理智的民族,就像国内小商贩和手工业者阶层那样,注定老是沉溺在物质生活之中,以现实为对象,却不以理性为对象。”【19-20】 第2、密尔虽然宣称自己“把功利视为一切伦理问题上的最终归宿”【《论自由》,11】,但在《论自由》中很难说他真的谨守了这一基本原则:第二章中密尔主要诉诸真理价值来辩护思想言论自由(真理只能在很边缘的含义上是一种效用),第三章则部分地诉诸个性发展(development of individuality)的一种有机论的、自然主义的人性观、部分诉诸类似于康德的自律的人性理解来辩护行为自由。密尔只是在确立个体自由和社会控制的边界时明确应用了狭义的效用标准。第3、虽然密尔确立了自由主义的基本原理(个人只要在不伤害他人的范围内,就应该拥有完全的思想自由、言论自由和个性自由(行动自由)),但其主要的忧虑或关切点却不是宪政制度的确立,这里密尔基本上预设了选举的责任制政府下权力与人民的一致性;像托克维尔一样,密尔的忧虑主要是平庸大众和多数人的暴政即所谓的社会对个体的暴政。
阅读使用的是广西师大孟凡礼译本《论自由》,这似是迄今很好的中译本,相当精致;英文对参The Pennsylvania State University 1998年版。】
“献辞”中密尔表达了对其妻Harriet Taylor Mill(1807-1858)的怀念和推重,情真意切,感人至深。
“章1: 引论(introductory)”
开篇密尔就宣称自己讨论的“不是所谓的意志自由(即那个与被误称为‘哲学必然性’的信条不巧恰相对立的东西),而是公民自由或社会自由,也就是社会所能合法施加于个人的权力的性质和限度(is not the so-called Liberty of the Will, so unfortunately opposed to the mis-named doctrine of Philosophical Necessity; but Civil, or Social Liberty: the nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual)。”【穆勒:《论自由》,孟凡礼译,广西师范大学出版社2011年版,页1,下同】密尔认为这会是将来的枢纽问题(vital question)。密尔回顾说,早期,人们并不质疑统治者的至上权威,自由仅仅指“对暴政的防范(protection against the tyranny)”,这有两种方式:1、确立某些被称为政治自由或政治权利的豁免权;2.较为晚近的宪政制衡(constitutional check),使得统治权力的实施以得到共同体的同意为必要条件。
密尔随后说,随着平民政府(popular government)时代的来临和民选的责任政府(elective and responsible government)的建立,政府被看做人们的代理人(delegate),政府的利益与人民的利益被认为一致,限制统治者权力的问题不再被认为是最核心的。但是实践表明 “行使权力的‘人民’和权力所施对象的人民并不总是同一的”【4】,自治政府(self-government)会遭遇多数者暴政(the tyranny of the majority)的问题。而且这一暴政不仅仅限于公共权力,而且延伸到更深远的社会,即“优势意见和大众情感的暴政”,而这“甚至束缚了人们的心灵本身。”【5】
(为了限制社会的暴政保障个体),必须厘清社会对个人独立的合法干预的限度。这就是个人独立与社会控制的界限问题。界限设定在哪儿或合法的社会控制的基本准则是什么?过往一直依赖习俗和传统(譬如上流社会的习俗)来确立这一界限,却缺乏原则性的观念。《论自由》的目的就是为了确立一条简明的原则来确定正当社会干预的限度,“该原则就是,人们若要干涉群体中任何个体的行动自由,无论干涉出自个人还是出自集体,其唯一正当的目的乃是保障自我不受伤害。反过来说,违背其意志而不失正当地施之于文明社会任何成员的权力,唯一的目的也仅仅是防止其伤害他人。他本人的利益,不论是身体的还是精神的,都不能成为对他施以强制的充分理由。…任何人的行为,只有涉及他人的哪一部分才必须要对社会负责。在仅仅关涉他自己的那一部分,他的独立性照理说来就是绝对的。对于他自己,对于其身体和心灵,个人就是最高主权者(Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign)。”【10】在社会仅有间接的利害关系的领域,是个人自由的适当领域,这包括如下方面:“首先是人类内在的意识领域的自由:它要求最广义的良心自由、思想和情感自由,对举凡实践、思想、科学、道德、宗教等所有事物的意见和态度的绝对自由。发表和出版意见的自由…几乎同等重要,并且所依据的理由又大都相同,所以实际上是无法将它们分开的。第二,这一原则要求品味和志趣自由;自由地根据自己的特性规划生活,做自己喜欢做的事并愿意承受一切可能的后果;…第三,由个人自由可以推出在同样限制内的个人联合的自由(It comprises, first, the inward domain of consciousness; demanding liberty of conscience, in the most comprehensive sense; liberty of thought and feeling; absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific, moral, or theological. The liberty of expressing and publishing opinions…being almost of as much importance as the liberty of thought itself, and resting in great part on the same reasons, is practically inseparable from it. Secondly, the principle requires liberty of tastes and pursuits; of framing the plan of our life to suit our own character; of doing as we like, subject to such consequences as may follow;… Thirdly, from this liberty of each individual, follows the liberty, within the same limits, of combination among individuals)。”【13】密尔的这一自由原理,也可以表述为:“唯一名副其实的自由,是以我们自己的方式追求我们自身之善的自由,只要我们没有企图剥夺别人的这种自由,也不去阻止他们追求自由的努力。”【13】由于当前舆论和实践是社会权力和控制的增强,密尔寄望这一自由原理“在人们的道德信念方面树立起一道有力的屏障,来阻止这一危害。”【15】
第一种情况是不能确定要禁绝的意见是错误的。压制表达自由的一个理由是为了防止谬种流传并保证现世生活的安稳,但密尔认为,“任何禁止自由讨论都是认定了自己绝对无误(All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility)。”【18】“对我们所持的意见,给予反驳与质难的完全自由,是我们有理由为了行动的目的而认定它正确的先决条件,而且除此以外,在人类智能所及的范围内,没有任何东西能够作为正确性的理性保证。”【21】保持言路开放以期发现真理并以正刊误,“是作为常犯错误的人类所能获得的确定性的全部,并且是我们能获致确定性的唯一途径。”【23】密尔以为,人们对于意见的确信常常不过是“缺乏信仰却又惧怕怀疑(destitute of faith, but terrified at skepticism)”的一种表现,无关真理,仅仅关涉所谓的社会效用。在反驳时,除了说明真理也是一种效用【25】,密尔举了些例子证实妄言无误(assumption of infallibility)导致危害: 苏格拉底之死;耶稣之被钉十字架;Marcus Aurelius之迫害基督教。敌视信仰自由和表达自由的一个理由是:“迫害是真理应该经受而且总是能成功通过的考验,法律的惩罚终将无力反对真理。”【30】密尔说这是一个美丽的谎言,“真理被迫害扑灭的例子史不绝书。”【31】而且这样对待嘉惠人类的恩主也不仁厚公道。而且压制和不宽容只造成表面的太平,却导致“人类心灵中道德勇气的全部牺牲。…受到最严重损害的并不是异端的心灵,而恰恰是那些并非异端的人,他们整个精神发展受到了限制,他们的理性被对异端的恐惧吓坏了。”【36】
“章3: 论作为幸福因素之一的个性自由(on individuality, as one of the elements of well-being)”
本章辩护“人类应该按照自己的意见自由行动——即只要他们愿意自负责任和自担风险,就应该不受同胞实质性的或道德的阻扰,而将其意见贯彻到自己的生活之中(that men should be free to act upon their opinions—to carry these out in their lives, without hindrance, either physical or moral, from their fellow-men, so long as it is at their own risk and peril)。”【65】支持意见自由的那些理由也同样支持行动自由。“各种性格只要不伤及他人就该允许其自由发展的空间。…总之,在并非首先关及他人的事情上,个性就应该得到伸张。如果行为法则不是出于个人的性格,而是出于他人的传统或习俗,人类幸福就缺少了其首要因素之一种。”【66】
密尔说,困难在于人们不关心个性自由(the development of individuality)这一目标,相反会倾向于认为个性舒展会徒生滋扰。密尔援引了洪堡(Humboldt)支持自由和个性的论点:人的真正目的就是能力的充分而协调的发展,或能力与发展的个性化(the individuality of power and development),这需要自由和环境的差异化。密尔说这种论点人们实际上是接受的,“当一个人各项能力已臻成熟,以他自己的方式利用和解释经验,乃是人之为人的特权与固有条件(it is the privilege and proper condition of a human being, arrived at the maturity of his faculties, to use and interpret experience in his own way)。”【68】无抉择地盲从习俗“不能使他作为人类天赋异禀的任何属性得到培育和发展。人类的诸种能力,如感知、判断、识别、心智活动以及道德倾向等等,只有在有所抉择时才能运用。”【68】“真正重要的,不仅是人们所行何事,而且还应包括如此行事者是何等样之人。在人类正确运用人生以求完善和美化的各种功业中,最重要的无疑还是人自己。(It really is of importance, not only what men do, but also what manner of men they are that do it. Among the works of man, which human life is rightly employed in perfecting and beautifying, the first in importance surely is man himself)。”【69,这里极为类似Kant关于“人是自律的”的伦理学观点】密尔还说,“人性并不是一部…机器,人性毋宁像是一棵树(Human nature is not a machine to be built after a model, and set to do exactly the work prescribed for it, but a tree),需要朝各个方向去成长与发展,并且是根据使它成为一个活体生命的内在力量的倾向去成长和发展。”【69,这里又是Aristotle-Hegel式样的有机体人性观】
在上述康德自律式和Aristotle有机体混合人性观之上,密尔认为:不仅自我理解比盲目服从好,而且欲望与激情(desires and impulse)也应该出于自己。激情无害,“人之为恶,并非激情如火之故,而是因为良心孱弱。”【70】成熟时代的缺陷恰好是个性不足而不是桀骜不驯。这里密尔采纳了罗马的自然人性论而不是基督教的禁欲论。密尔抨击了加尔文主义对罪性的强调,认为“神赋予人的一切能力都该得到培育和发展。…‘异教徒的自我伸张’与‘基督徒的自我克制’,同为人类的可贵之源。”【73】做Pericles好过做Knox和Alcibiades。“随着个性的张扬,每个人变得对他自己更有价值,也因此就能更有益于他人。”【74】因此,需要个性自由,“无论哪个时代,个性自由得以发挥的程度是否宽广,都是后世对其艳羡或鄙弃的标准(In proportion as this latitude has been exercised in any age, has that age been noteworthy to posterity)。…凡是摧毁人之个性的,却都可以称之为暴政。”【74】“在人类事务的极限之内,既然个性的舒展可以让人类自身接近其所能达到的最佳境地。”【75】
另一个支持个性自由的理由是:人类个性和首创性的先进者的自由对那些不渴望自由的后进者也是有益处的。天才总是少数,更具有个性,应该予以宽容或拥有自由。人们虽然理论上赞同这点,但实际上却漠不关心,而且“遍及世界的普遍趋势仍然是使庸众成为人世间的支配力量。…如今个人却消失在人群之中了。”【77】庸众的政府逃不了平庸的命运,在这种情形下,“非但不应阻止,而且还应鼓励特立独行之士故意做出异于群众的行动。”【78-9】不苟先例本身就是一种贡献。普通人的英明与光荣就在于追随天才的创造,“能够衷心响应那些睿智高贵之事,并且不顾一切毅然相从…他(天才)所能要求的,只是为人们指出道路的自由而已。”【78】这里密尔再度采纳了康德式的自律理由:独立特行是好的,“以自己的方式筹划生活,就是最好的,并非因为这种方式本身就为最好,而是因为这是属于他自己的方式(his own mode of laying out his existence is the best, not because it is the best in itself, but because it is his own mode)。”【79】人与人之间差异极大,因此需要多样化的环境和生活。“不同的人需要不同的条件以成就其精神发展;在一种相同的道德氛围和风气之下,人们不可能健康地生活,这正如所有各种各样的植物不可能在具有相同空气和气候的自然环境下健康地生存一样。”【80,回到了Aristotle式的有机体理论】
以下是我对他在论自由里主要哲学假设的概括 (页码来源On Liberty & Utilitarianism, Pocket Edition):
Mill starts his defense of liberty by providing a formulation of his fundamental principles regarding liberty. He asserts that the sole purpose for which people can interfere with the liberties of others is self-protection. In other words, if a person does no harm to others, his or her individual liberty should be protected by the society (p.9). A person’s freedom of action or expression should be limited only if it actually violates or threatens an impending violation of the rights of the others (p.12). For instance, people can express their opinions that a corn-dealer is starving the poor, but may not instigate an excited mob to attack his house (p.55), because this action violates that basic principle of liberty.
Another important assumption underlying Mill’s arguments is that no one with human faculties can posses a claim to absolute truth. Even if something may seem like a “truth”, it only stays true so long as other people have not refuted it. Mill contends that we should allow others the liberty to contradict our opinions. He regards it as necessary if we want to assume our opinions to be true for the purpose of action (p.18). Those who oppress their opponents are essentially assuming themselves to be infallible. In addition, he argues that even if our opponents are wrong, we can still benefit from allowing them to express their own thoughts. After all, the conception and impression of truth will become clearer and more vivid by its “collision” with error (p.16). Here, Mill is also assuming that we, as humans, can best learn about our own opinions by listening to others. If we do not allow our opinions or customs to be challenged by others, even a “truth” will become a dogma and cease to suggest ideas. Instead of a vivid conception and a living belief, all the finer essence of the “truth” will be lost in the long run (p.37).
Moreover, Mill argues not only for Liberty, but also for individuality and its development. In fact, he grounds his defense of individuality and its development on his conception of human nature. He believes that human nature is not a machine to be built after a model and to do the exact work prescribed for it by others. Instead, it should be a tree that grows and develops itself on all sides, according to the tendency of inward force that make it a living thing (p.59). Similar to Aristotle, Mill contends that human beings can exercise their human faculties only by making a choice. If people cannot follow their own plans for life, they can make no choice and thus gain no practice in discerning what is best. Consequently, they would have no need of their human faculties other than the ape-like one of imitation (p.58). Mill believes that if a person possesses enough amount of common sense and experience, his or her own way of living is the best, because it is his or her own mode. In other words, people should be allowed to develop their own individualities in their own ways, without hindrance from others (p.67).
In addition, Mill assumes that it is not denied by anyone that originality is desirable. There is a constant need of people to discover new truth, commence new practices and set new standards of more enlightened conduct, in order that the progress of human life would not become stagnant (p.64). Mill thus insists that it is crucial for the society to give the creative and original people a free soil in which they can grow without obstructions. For Mill, the chief danger of his time was the situation where few dared to become geniuses and be “eccentric” (p.67). To put it differently, it was the push towards collective mediocrity in his society that worried Mill.
Not only originality is a crucial component of individuality, energies, or strong desires, are also important. Unlike Plato, Mill believes that strong desires do not necessarily corrupt wills. In fact, he argues that it is not because men’s desires are strong that they act ill; it is because their wills are weak or inactive (p.59). In Mill’s conception, there is no natural connection between strong desires and a weak conscience. A person who possesses stronger desires may be capable of doing more harm but he or she is also able to do greater good (p.60). Consequently, Mill contends that one should not be afraid to lead more energetic life. Through originality and strong desires, one may develop one’s individuality towards the fullest.
我想问下”should be submitted to by that miscellaneous collection of a few wise and many foolish individuals, called the public. “ 的by怎么理解?
引: 这位译者批评许的翻译的不好的地方,引了一段Mill的原文:They preferred endeavouring to alter the feelings of mankind on the particular points on which they were themselves heretical, rather than make common cause in defence of freedom, with heretics generally.
这位译者把之翻译成:“他们宁可在自己就是异见者的某一具体点上,尽力去改变人们的看法,而不愿联合所有异见者同心协力来捍卫自由。”这位明显是翻译错了,许的翻译才是正确的:“他们宁愿就着他们自己持有异说的某些特定之点努力去改变人类的感想,而不把保卫自由、保障一切异端作为一般性的主张。”而且这个句子的意思也差得特别远。Mill的意思是要确定某种general principle, 而这位译者居然是说要联合heretics, 倒像是政治斗争了。同心协力这个词我更是不知道从哪里加进来的。 —————————————————————— 这句话两位译者译得意思都对。争议点在于“with heretics generally”看做动词“make common cause”的修饰语,还是 “in defense of freedom”的并列结构。若是前者,则是与所有异见者一道展开保护自由的共同事业,那位纠错者把make common cause译为“同心协力”,把defense做了句中动词,也通;而许先生的译文则理解为“在保护自由和保护一般异见者”上make common cause(做出“一般性主张”),也通。不过准确而言,若是徐先生的译法,英文应写作:in defence of freedom and heretics generally(在一般性地保护自由和异见者上)。 第二句我没有上下文,感觉不好判断,我也读过徐先生的译本,感觉就是忠实、啰唆,偶有小错。那位新译者的译文,从上面两句来看,拥有简练忠实和符合现代汉语的特点,倒反而是值得期待的。
我真没明白make common cause怎么能翻译成“同心协力”的。
你如果愿意的话,把第二句的出处告诉我一下。不过密尔的英文大多故意搞得非常复杂,他本人有没有写错,我们是很难看出来的。 make common cause 就是做出共同的举动。汉译把这个意思转换为“保护自由”的修饰副词。
http://www.bartleby.com/130/1.html 这边有原文:They have occupied themselves rather in inquiring what things society ought to like or dislike, than in questioning whether its likings or dislikings should be a law to individuals. They preferred endeavouring to alter the feelings of mankind on the particular points on which they were themselves heretical, rather than make common cause in defence of freedom, with heretics generally.
第二句在网上复制粘贴随便一搜就有很多啊...
第二句在此:http://www.bartleby.com/130/2.html The steady habit of correcting and completing his own opinion by collating it with those of others, so far from causing doubt and hesitation in carrying it into practice, is the only stable foundation for a just reliance on it: for, being cognisant of all that can, at least obviously, be said against him, and having taken up his position against all gainsayers—knowing that he has sought for objections and difficulties, instead of avoiding them, and has shut out no light which can be thrown upon the subject from any quarter—he has a right to think his judgment better than that of any person, or any multitude, who have not gone through a similar process. 7 It is not too much to require that what the wisest of mankind, those who are best entitled to trust their own judgment, find necessary to warrant their relying on it, should be submitted to by that miscellaneous collection of a few wise and many foolish individuals, called the public.
我粗看了一下,第二句的主干是:It is not too much to require … by that miscellaneous collection of a few wise and many foolish individuals, called the public. (在混合少数智者和多数愚人的公众那里,这有点要求并不过分) 什么要求呢? what the wisest of mankind, … , should be submitted to. (连人类中最智慧者都要屈从的东西) 哪些人类中最智慧者?those who are best entitled to trust their own judgment, find necessary to warrant their relying on it (那些最有权利相信自己的判断、看到有必要确保他们仰赖其判断的人)
“by that miscellaneous collection of a few wise and many foolish individuals, called the public” 更准确地来说,应该看成是从句里的缩略语:what the wises of mankind should be submitted to, (should also be submitted to) by that miscellaneous collection of a few wise and many foolish individuals, called the public. 不知道这样是不是更好?
@Nichts 但是这样第一个从句就不怎么通:what the wisest of mankind, those who are best entitled to trust their own judgment, find necessary to warrant their relying on it, should be submitted to. 这个里面的it该作何解? 不过我说的是不对,这句话可能是很复杂,我自己再想想。
@Nichts make common cause with是固定搭配,那么应该是我弄错了,多谢批评!我收回我帖子里的批评。
@SWX it好像是代指their own judgment. 看了Nichts拆的句子才发现自己果然也理解错了。/掩面
句子分析:It is not too much to require that what the wisest of mankind, those who are best entitled to trust their own judgment, find necessary to warrant their relying on it, should be submitted to by that miscellaneous collection of a few wise and many foolish individuals, called the public. 前面做完分析后发现 “by …"应看成从句内部分。 主句:It is not too much to require that …(这要求并不过分) 从句1:what … should be submitted to by that miscellaneous collection of a few wise and many foolish individuals, called the public (那个what应该被混合少数智者和多数愚人的公众所遵循) 从句2: what the wisest of mankind, …, find necessary to warrant their relying on it (人类中最智慧者也认为这个东西在保证他们倚赖自己的判断上是必要的) 从句3 什么样的最智慧者? the wisest of mankind, those who are best entitled to trust their own judgment (那些最有资格信赖自己判断的人类中最智慧者)
同意楼上。 另:楼主引用的批评许译的第一个例子,我认为批评者译得是对的,尤其是前半句非常精确:“他们宁可在自己就是异见者的某一具体点上,尽力去改变人们的看法……”,后半句“make common cause in defence of freedom, with heretics generally”——倘若觉得“同心协力”太滑溜了,不妨译作“和持有异议者一起把捍卫自由当做共同的事业”。
xxx make common cause with yyy 就是xxx和yyy为了达到某个双方都想要的目的而work together